The Holy See has sent and received diplomatic missions since the fourth century. For many centuries, the Popes held temporal control over the Papal States, which included a broad band of territory across central Italy, as well as the city of Rome. In 1861, at the time of the general unification of Italy, almost all of the papal lands were acquired by the Kingdom of Italy, following conquests by the Italian Army and popular plebicites. The Pope's sovereignty was then confined to Rome and its environs until 1870, when Rome itself was incorporated forcibly into the new Kingdom. In 1871, the Italian Parliament enacted the Law of Guarantees, which sought to assure the Pope's spiritual freedom, an income, and special status for the Vatican area. However, Pope Pius IX and his successors refused to acknowledge the validity of these laws, preferring instead to impose on themselves the status of prisoners in the Vatican. This situation lasted until February 11, 1929, when the Holy See and the Italian Government signed in the Lateran Palace the following three agreements regulating the dispute:

-- A treaty recognizing the independence and sovereignty of the Holy See and creating the State of the Vatican City;

-- A concordat fixing the relations between the government and the church within Italy; and

-- A financial convention providing the Holy See with compensation for its losses in 1870.

A revised concordat, altering the terms of church-state relations, was signed February 18, 1984.

Current Political Conditions

Pope John Paul II, born in Poland, is the first non-Italian Pope in nearly five centuries. Elected on October 16, 1978, he succeeded John Paul I, whose reign lasted only 34 days. The Pope exercises supreme legislative, executive, and judicial power over the Holy See and within the State of the Vatican City.

The Pope rules the Holy See through the Roman Curia and its staff, the Papal Civil Service. The Roman Curia consists of the Secretariat of State, 9 Congregations (equivalent to Ministries), 3 Tribunals, 12 Pontifical Councils, and a complex of offices that administer church affairs at the highest level. The Curia is directed and coordinated by the Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State. The current incumbent, Agostino Cardinal Casaroli, is the Holy See's second-ranking official and is the equivalent of prime minister. Archbishop Angelo Sodano, Secretary of the Section for Relations With States of the Secretariat of State is, in effect, the Vatican's foreign minister.

Among the most active of the major Curial institutions are the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which oversees church doctrine; the Congregation for the Bishops, which coordinates the appointment of bishops worldwide; the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, which oversees all missionary, activities; and the Pontifical Council of "Justice and Peace," which deals with international peace and social issues.

Three tribunals are responsible for judicial power. The Apostolic Penitentiary deals with matters of conscience; the Roman Rota is responsible for appeals, including annulments of marriage; and the Apostolic Signatura is the final court of appeal.

The Prefecture for Economic Affairs coordinates the finances of the Holy See departments and supervises the administration of the Patrimony of the Holy See (an investment fund dating back to the Lateran Pacts). A committee of 15 cardinals, chaired by the Secretary of State, has final oversight authority over all financial matters of the Holy See, including those of the Institute for Religious Works (the Vatican bank).

Source: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, April 1989.